--S.E. Smith
From: The United States Navy in World War II
Preface to Part II: Chapter 5: P. Q. 17
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| Convoy PQ 17 | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of World War II, Arctic Campaign | |||||||
 Escorts and merchant ships at Hvalfjord before the sailing of Convoy PQ 17. | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 United Kingdom United States Soviet Union Netherlands Panama |  Nazi Germany | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Adm. J. C. Tovey Rear-Adm. L.H.K. Hamilton Cdr. J. E. Broome Commodore John Dowding | Großadmiral Erich Raeder Admiral Karl Dönitz Generaloberst Hans-Jürgen Stumpff | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 6 destroyers, 2 anti-aircraft ships, 2 submarines, 11 smaller craft, 35 merchant ships 6 auxiliary ships[1] | U-boats, (boats with kills:) U-88, U-251, U-255, U-334, U-355, U-376, U-456, U-457, U-703 33 torpedo aircraft, 6 bombers. (Flying over 200 sorties) | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 24 merchant ships sunk, 153 merchant mariners killed | 5 aircraft | ||||||
| ||
PQ 17 was the code name for an Allied World War II convoy in the Arctic Ocean. In July 1942, the Arctic convoys suffered a significant defeat when Convoy PQ 17 lost 24 of its 35 merchant ships during a series of heavy enemy daylight attacks which lasted a week.[2] On 27 June, the ships sailed eastbound from Hvalfjord, Iceland for the port of Arkhangelsk, Russia. The convoy was located by German forces on 1 July, after which it was shadowed continuously and attacked. The convoy's progress was being observed by theBritish Admiralty, which ordered the ships to scatter because of information that German navy surface units were being refuelled to intercept the convoy.[3] The convoy was the first joint Anglo-American naval operation under British command in the war.[4]
As the close escort and the covering cruiser forces withdrew westward to intercept the presumed German raiders, the individual merchant ships were left without their escorting destroyers.[5] In their ensuing attempts to reach the appointed Russian ports, the merchant ships were repeatedly attacked byLuftwaffe airplanes and submarines. Of the initial 35 ships, only 11 reached their destination, delivering 70,000 short tons (64,000 t) of cargo.[6] The disastrous outcome of the convoy demonstrated the difficulty of passing adequate supplies through the Arctic, especially during the summer period of perpetual daylight.
Background[edit]
With the entry of the Soviet Union in the war, the British and American governments agreed to send unconditional aid to their Russian allies. TheBeaverbrook-Harriman Anglo-American Mission visited Moscow in October 1941, agreeing to a series of munitions deliveries to Russia.[8] The most direct way to carry these supplies was by sea around the North Cape, through Arctic waters to the ports of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk.[9] The agreement stated that the Soviet government was responsible for receiving the supplies in Soviet ships at British or American ports. However since there were not enough ships for the quantities of aid being sent by the Western allies to the Soviet Union, British and American ships began to constitute an increasing proportion of the convoy traffic.[10]
Although the defence of the Arctic convoys was the responsibility of the Royal Navy, Fleet Admiral Ernest King assigned Task Force 39 (TF 39) — built around the carrier USS Wasp and the battleship USS Washington — to support the British.[11]
The first convoy sailed from the United Kingdom in August 1941, two months after the German invasion of The Soviet Union. By the spring of 1942, twelve more convoys had made the passage with the loss of only one out of 103 ships.[2] From then on, the threat of attacks on the convoys increased, with the Germans preparing to stop the flow of supplies to the USSR with every means at their disposal, including the basing of heavy ships in Norway.[2] In 1941, the Kriegsmarine had already begun concentrating its strength in Norway in winter, both to prevent a repeated British attack, and to obstruct Allied supply lines to The Soviet Union. The battleshipTirpitz was moved to Trondheim in January, where she was joined by Admiral Scheer and in March by the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper.[12] Initial German dispositions had also directed battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen to concentrate in Arctic waters, but these all fell victim to Allied air attacks, and had to turn back for repairs.[10] Moreover, the Germans had bases along the length of Norway, which meant, until escort carriers became available, Allied convoys had to be sailed through these areas without adequate defense against aircraft and submarine attack.[13]
Admiralty instructions and diversionary operations[edit]
British naval intelligence in June reported the Germans' intention to bring out major naval units to attack the next eastbound convoy, east of Bear Island.[12][14] Thus German forces would operate close to the Norwegian coast, with support of shore-based air reconnaissance and striking forces, with a screen of U-boats in the channels between Spitsbergen and Norway.[15] Allied covering forces, on the other hand, would be without air support, one thousand miles from their base, and with the destroyers too short on fuel to escort a damaged ship to harbour.[12]
To prevent such a situation, the Admiralty issued instructions on 27 June, which allowed the convoy to be turned back temporarily in order to shorten the distance to the nearest Allied base.[15] In the event, enemy surface movements took place later than expected, making these instructions unnecessary.[3] The Admiralty also instructed the safety of the convoy from surface attack to the westward of Bear Island depended on Allied surface forces, while to the eastward it was to be met by Allied submarines. Furthermore, the convoy's cruiser covering force was not to go east of Bear Island, unless the convoy was threatened by the presence of a surface force which the cruiser force could fight, nor to go beyond 25° East under any circumstance.[4][16]
A decoy convoy was also organised to divert enemy forces, consisting of the First Minelaying Squadron and four colliers, escorted byHMS Sirius and Curacoa, five destroyers, and some trawlers. This diversionary force assembled at Scapa Flow for a week, sailing two days after the convoy.[17] German reconnaissance of Scapa during the period of assembly failed to notice the diversion, which was also not sighted on its passage. The operation was repeated on 1 July, again without success.[17] Additionally on 26 June the Admiralty took the opportunity to pass a westbound convoy QP 13, in conjunction with PQ 17. The former was made up of returning merchant ships from Arkhangelsk, with some ships leaving Murmansk.[17] It consisted of 35 ships and was escorted by five destroyers, three corvettes, one anti-aircraft ship, three minesweepers, two trawlers and, as far as the Bear Island area, one submarine. It was sighted by German aircraft on 30 June and 2 July. However, QP 13 was not attacked, since the German tactic was to concentrate on eastbound (laden) convoys,[17] rather than westbound convoys in ballast.
A fresh ice reconnaissance done on 3 July found the passage north of Bear Island had widened. The Admiralty suggested the convoy should pass at least 50 mi (80 km) north of it.[18] The senior officer of the escort (SOE), Commander J. E. Broome, preferred to stay in the low visibility on the original route, and to make ground to the eastward. Rear Admiral L. H. K. Hamilton, in command of the cruiser squadron, later decided that a more northerly route was necessary, ordered the SOE to alter the convoy's course to pass 70 miles (110 km) north of Bear Island and, later on to open to 400 mi (640 km) from Banak.[18]
Covering forces[edit]
The convoy's close escort was the First Escort Group (EG1), under Cdr. J Broome, and included six destroyers, 11 corvettes, minesweepers or armed trawlers, and two anti-aircraft auxiliaries. The destroyers were HMS Keppel (SOE), Fury, Leamington, Ledbury, Offa andWilton. The anti-aircraft auxiliaries were the HMS Palomares and Pozarica. The other escorting ships were the corvettes HMS Lotus, Poppy, La Malouine and Dianella, the minesweepers HMS Halcyon, Salamander and Britomart, and the anti-submarine trawlersHMT Lord Middleton, Lord Austin, Ayrshire and Northern Gem.[19]
In a more distant covering role was the First Cruiser Squadron (CS1), under the command of Rear Admiral L. H. K. Hamilton, consisting of the British cruisers HMS London (flagship) and Norfolk, the American cruisers USS Wichita and Tuscaloosa, and four destroyers, of which two were American.
As further protection, the convoy was to be tracked at about 200 mi (320 km) by Home Fleet battleships.[20]
The second, heavy covering force, under the command of Admiral John Tovey, was made up of the British aircraft carrier Victorious, battleship Duke of York (flagship), cruisers Cumberland and Nigeria, the American battleship USS Washington, and nine destroyers.[21]
As the convoy began its preliminary movements, the covering forces planned by the Admiralty were moving to positions. Hamilton's First Cruiser Squadron left Seidisfjord in the night from 30 June-1 July.[17] It arrived in a covering position north of the convoy on 2 July. The cruisers were not sighted by the Germans until late on 3 July.[17]
The heavy cover force was shadowed for a short period while northeast of Iceland on 1 July, while the cruiser screen was refuelling at Seidisfiord. It was shadowed for a short period early on 3 July, while in a covering position south of the convoy.[17] Later that day, course was altered to the northward, to cross the convoy's track and to reach a position northwest of Bear Island. This would placeVictorious within air striking range of the convoy on the morning of 4 July. This was calculated to occur at the same time at which a surface attack was expected to materialise. While en route to the new covering area, the task force was joined by HMS Manchesterand Eclipse from Spitsbergen.[18]
Air reconnaissance of the Norwegian harbours had been hindered by weather, but information available showed German heavy units were probably moving northwards, and an air photograph of Trondheim late on 3 July confirmed Tirpitz and Hipper had sortied.[18] Theflying boat patrol and the two lines of submarines between North Cape and Bear Island were being adjusted to cover the line of approach to the convoy as it moved eastwards. In view of the uncertainty of the two German ships' positions, Rear Admiral Hamilton decided to continue to provide close cover with the cruiser squadron and to pass east of Bear Island.[18]
Convoy movement, covering forces and escort[edit]
The convoy sailed from Hvalfjord on 27 June, under the command of Commodore John Dowding. In addition to the 34 merchant ships, an oiler (RFA Grey Ranger) for the escort, and three rescue ships (Rathlin, Zamalek and Zaafaran)[22] sailed with the convoy. The escort was made up of six destroyers, four corvettes, three minesweepers, four trawlers, two anti-aircraft ships, and two submarines. The route was longer than earlier convoys, since the ice allowed for a passage north of Bear Island with an evasive detour in theBarents Sea. Moreover, all the convoy was bound for Arkhangelsk, because recent heavy air raids had destroyed most of Murmansk.[23] One ship suffered mechanical failure just out of port and was forced to turn back. Another, SS Exford, turned back after sustaining ice damage.[24]
Part of the convoy ran into drifting ice in thick weather of the Denmark Strait. Two merchant ships were damaged and had to turn back. Grey Ranger was also damaged,[25] her speed reduced to 8 kn (9.2 mph; 15 km/h), and since it was doubtful if she could face heavy weather, it was decided to transfer her to the fuelling position northeast of Jan Mayen in exchange for the RFA Aldersdale.[26]
Shortly after it entered the open sea, PQ 17 was sighted and tracked by U-456, and shadowed continuously except for a few short intervals in fog. This was augmented by Luftwaffe BV 138s on 1 July. On 2 July, the convoy sighted the returning convoy QP 13. It suffered its first air attack, by nine torpedo aircraft, later the same day. The planes were unsuccessful, one being shot down.[27] At 13:00 on 3 July, PQ 17's destroyer screen was steering east to pass between Bear Island and Spitsbergen.[28]
A solitary aircraft scored a torpedo hit on the morning of 4 July (the stricken merchantman, SS Christopher Newport, had to be scuttledby the escort) and there was an unsuccessful attack by six bombers in the evening.[29][30] USS Wainwright successfully broke up an air attack on the convoy the same day.[31] Later the same evening, another attack — by 25 torpedo bombers — took place, sinking SS William Hooper.[32] Two ships were now sunk, and at least four aircraft were shot down.[33]
'Convoy is to scatter'[edit]
| TIME | FROM | TO | MESSAGE |
|---|---|---|---|
| 21:11 | ADMY | CS1 | Cruiser Force withdraw to the westward at high speed. |
| 21:23 | ADMY | CS1 | Owing to threat from surface ships, convoy is to disperse and proceed to Russian ports. |
| 21:36 | ADMY | CS1 | Convoy is to scatter. |
At 12:30 on 4 July, the Admiralty gave Admiral Hamilton permission to proceed east of 25° east, should the situation demand, unless contrary orders were received from Admiral Tovey. This was a reversal of previous orders. As no information in Tovey's possession justified this change, Hamilton was ordered to withdraw when the convoy was east of 25° east, or earlier at his discretion, unless the Admiralty assured him Tirpitz would not be met. However, at 18:58 the Admiralty informed Hamilton further information was expected shortly[34] and instructed him to remain with the convoy pending further instructions. At 21:11, the Admiralty sent a message, prefixed "Most Immediate" ordering Hamilton to withdraw to the westward at high speed.[33]
This was due to U-boat information, a fact not shared with Hamilton. At 21:23, the Admiralty — in a message prefixed "Immediate" — ordered the convoy to disperse and proceed to Russian ports owing to threat from surface ships.[35] Again, at 21:36, the Admiralty sent another "Most Immediate" message, ordering the convoy to scatter.[36][a]
Admiral Hamilton, Commander Broome, and Commodore Dowding took these signals to indicate an attack by Tirpitz was imminent.[37]The convoy was immediately ordered to scatter, with the escorting destroyers ordered to join the cruiser force and the merchantmen to proceed independently.[38] The Admiralty's decision and orders would not have been so vehement had only British warships been concerned, but the idea the first joint Anglo-American operation under British command might involve the destruction of American as well as British units may well have influenced the decisions of First Sea Lord Pound.[39] The Allied cruiser squadron was already beyond the standing orders set by the Admiralty; hence, if no new orders had gone out, the cruisers would have had to withdraw some time afterwards in any case. The earlier cruiser movement did not influence the tactical situation. However, in light of later knowledge, the decision was deemed precipitous.[4]
Convoy losses[edit]
See also: Order of battle for Convoy PQ 17
When the order to scatter the convoy was received, it had covered more than half of its route with the loss of only three ships. The consequences for the merchantmen were dire. Now the ships were spread over a wide area, stripped of mutual protection as well as trained escort. The Germans took advantage of this situation. As the escort moved off to hunt for the suspected German surface force, messages on Merchant Navy wavelengths began to be received by the destroyers: "Am being bombed by a large number of planes", "On fire in the ice", "Abandoning ship", "Six U-boats approaching on the surface."[40] With the majority of the escorts ordered to return to Scapa Flow, only the close escort of anti-aircraft auxiliaries, corvettes, minesweepers, and armed trawlers was left to attempt to protect the scattered convoy. On 5 July, six merchantmen, including SS Fairfield City and SS Daniel Morgan, were sunk by Luftwaffe and six more by four U-boats. Among the losses that day were SS Pan Kraft, Washington, Carlton, Honomu, the Commodore's flagship River Afton,Empire Byron and Peter Kerr. Kerr was abandoned after a fire got out of control.[41]Commodore Dowding's refusal to accept defeat contributed to the rescue of most of the ships that eventually survived the convoy.[42]SS Paulus Potter had been abandoned by her crew after an aerial attack on 5 July. The ship was then boarded by sailors from U-255on 13 July; after taking the ship's documents and flag, Kptlt. Reche then sank the Potter with one torpedo.[43]
On 6 July, SS Pan Atlantic was sunk by the Luftwaffe, and SS John Witherspoon by U-255. On 7–8 July, five more ships were sunk (two by U-255), including SS Olapana and SS Alcoa Ranger. The remaining escort withdrew into the Arctic Ocean on 9 July, but the merchant ships suffered no more that day. The last losses were SS Hoosier and SS El Capitan on 10 July. The Luftwaffe flew over 200 sorties, and lost only five planes in exchange for the eight merchantmen they destroyed.[44]
On receiving the third order to scatter on 4 July 1942, RNVR T/Lt Leo Gradwell commanding the ASW adapted 575 long tons (584 t)Middlesbrough-built trawler HMS Ayrshire (FY 225),[45] concluded that as he was heading north to the Arctic ice shelf, nothing prevented him from escorting merchantmen. Leading his convoy of the Ayrshire and three US merchant vessels - Panamanian-registered Troubador, Ironclad and Silver Sword[46] - they proceeded north using only a sextant and "The Times World Geographic Pocket Book." On reaching the Arctic ice pack, the convoy found itself stuck fast, and so the ships stopped engines and then banked their fires.[46] Gradwell arranged a defence, formulated around the fact that the Troubador was carrying a cargo of bunkering coal and drums of white paint: the crews painted all the vessels white; covered decks with white linen; and arranged the Sherman tanks on the merchant vessels decks into a defensive formation, with loaded main guns.[47] After a period of waiting, and having evaded the reconnoitring Luftwaffe aircraft, finding thmselves unstuck they proceeded to the Matochkin Strait.[48] They were found there by a flotilla of corvettes,[48] who escorted the four-ship convoy plus two other merchant vessels to the Russian port of Archangel, arriving on 25 July.[48][49] Gradwell was appointed Distinguished Service Cross on 15 September 1942.[49][50]
In the ensuing voyage to the Russian ports, some of the ships and lifeboat craft took refuge along the frozen coast of Novaya Zemlya, landing at Matochkin.[51] Additionally, the Soviet tanker Azerbaijan had lost her cargo of linseed oil, and much of SS Winston-Salem's cargo had been jettisoned in Novaya Zemlya.[52]
Many of the ships' locations were unknown, in spite of widespread searches by Coastal Command aircraft which had proceeded to North Russia after their patrols, and by minesweepers and corvettes in these waters. A fortnight elapsed before the results of these attacks and the fate of the various ships of the convoy were fully known.[4] Of the 34 ships which left Iceland, 23 were sunk and only 11 made it through. Two British, four American, one Panamanian, and two Russian merchant ships reached Arkhangelsk. Two American ships, the SS Samuel Chase and Benjamin Harrison landed at Murmansk.[53] The total deliveries amounted to 70,000 short tons (64,000 t) out of the 200,000 short tons (180,000 t) which had started from Iceland.[6]
Aftermath[edit]
Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the event, "one of the most melancholy naval episodes in the whole of the war."[6] An inquiry assigned no blame to anyone, since orders were issued by the First Sea Lord.[54] The Soviet Union did not believe so many ships could be lost in one convoy and openly accused the Western Allies of lying. Despite the help provided by the materiel delivered, PQ 17 actually worsened Soviet-Allied relations over the short term, with the Soviets never acknowledging the efforts of Allied merchant seaman or sailors in either navy.[55] Joseph Stalin, and Soviet naval experts, found it difficult to understand the order to scatter given by the Admiralty, given "that the escorting vessels of the PQ 17 should return, wheareas the cargo boats should disperse and try to reach the Soviet ports one by one without any protection at all."[56] Admiral King, already known to distrust the British, was furious with what he perceived as Admiral Pound's bungling and promptly withdrew TF 39, sending it to the Pacific. He hesitated to conduct further joint operations under British command.[11] Admiral Dan Gallery, USN, serving in Iceland at that time, called PQ 17 "a shameful page in naval history".[57]
In view of PQ 17, the Admiralty proposed to suspend the Arctic convoys at least until the ice receded and perpetual daylight passed.[54] At a conference with Hitler, Kriegsmarine Commander-in-Chief Admiral Raeder stated, "...our submarines and aircraft, which totally destroyed the last convoy, have forced the enemy to give up this route temporarily..."[58] At a meeting with the head of the Soviet Military Mission, Admiral Harlamov and the Soviet ambassador in London, Ivan Maisky, the Soviets requested to know the scheduled departure of PQ 18. Pound said nothing could be done until better Russian air cover was arranged, after which Harlamov criticised the order to withdraw the cruisers from PQ 17. Pound was furious, and deeply resented the Russian attitude. Pound angrily admitted that PQ 17 was scattered by his personal order while Maisky stated that "even British admirals make mistakes".[59]
It was not until September that another convoy set out for North Russia. The convoy's defence scheme was revised, with a very strong constant close escort of sixteen destroyers and the first of the new escort carriers, HMS Avenger, herself equipped with twelve fighters.[60] After the war there was criticism of this incident, both from American and Soviet sources.[60] Soviet historians give varying reasons for the suspension and reduction in supply caused by the halt in the Arctic convoys. Some considered it the result of "the fact that in 1942, Anglo-American (ocean) communications were destroyed."[61]
At least sixteen officers and men of the Merchant Navy were honoured for gallantry or distinguished service for the actions in the convoy. A supplement to the London Gazette published on 6 October 1942 carried notification of two George Medals, six appointments to various grades of the Order of the British Empire, six British Empire Medals and two King's Commendation for Brave Conduct.[62]
In December 2012 the Arctic Star military decoration was created and on 19 March 2013 the first medals were presented to approximately 40 veterans, in London.[63][64]
In January 2014, the hour-long BBC Two documentary PQ17: An Arctic Convoy Disaster, written and narrated by Jeremy Clarkson, retold the story of the convoy with moving first-hand testimony from the men who served.
| The Right Honourable Sir Winston Churchill KG OM CH TD DL FRS RA | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Prime Minister of the United Kingdom | |
| In office 26 October 1951 – 7 April 1955 | |
| Monarch | |
| Deputy | Anthony Eden |
| Preceded by | Clement Attlee |
| Succeeded by | Anthony Eden |
| In office 10 May 1940 – 26 July 1945 | |
| Monarch | George VI |
| Deputy | Clement Attlee |
| Preceded by | Neville Chamberlain |
| Succeeded by | Clement Attlee |
| Leader of the Opposition | |
| In office 26 July 1945 – 26 October 1951 | |
| Monarch | George VI |
| Prime Minister | Clement Attlee |
| Preceded by | Clement Attlee |
| Succeeded by | Clement Attlee |
| Leader of the Conservative Party | |
| In office 9 November 1940 – 7 April 1955 | |
| Preceded by | Neville Chamberlain |
| Succeeded by | Anthony Eden |
| Minister of Defence | |
| In office 28 October 1951 – 1 March 1952 | |
| Preceded by | Emanuel Shinwell |
| Succeeded by | The Earl Alexander of Tunis |
| In office 10 May 1940 – 26 July 1945 | |
| Preceded by | The Lord Chatfield |
| Succeeded by | Clement Attlee |
| First Lord of the Admiralty | |
| In office 3 September 1939 – 11 May 1940 | |
| Prime Minister | Neville Chamberlain |
| Preceded by | The Earl Stanhope |
| Succeeded by | A.V. Alexander |
| In office 24 October 1911 – 25 May 1915 | |
| Prime Minister | H. H. Asquith |
| Preceded by | Reginald McKenna |
| Succeeded by | Arthur Balfour |
| Chancellor of the Exchequer | |
| In office 6 November 1924 – 4 June 1929 | |
| Prime Minister | Stanley Baldwin |
| Preceded by | Philip Snowden |
| Succeeded by | Philip Snowden |
| Secretary of State for the Colonies | |
| In office 13 February 1921 – 19 October 1922 | |
| Prime Minister | David Lloyd George |
| Preceded by | The Viscount Milner |
| Succeeded by | The Duke of Devonshire |
| Secretary of State for Air | |
| In office 10 January 1919 – 13 February 1921 | |
| Prime Minister | David Lloyd George |
| Preceded by | The Viscount Weir |
| Succeeded by | Frederick Edward Guest |
| Minister of Munitions | |
| In office 17 July 1917 – 10 January 1919 | |
| Prime Minister | David Lloyd George |
| Preceded by | Christopher Addison |
| Succeeded by | The Lord Inverforth |
| Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster | |
| In office 25 May 1915 – 25 November 1915 | |
| Prime Minister | H. H. Asquith |
| Preceded by | Edwin Samuel Montagu |
| Succeeded by | Herbert Samuel |
| Home Secretary | |
| In office 19 February 1910 – 24 October 1911 | |
| Prime Minister | H. H. Asquith |
| Preceded by | Herbert Gladstone |
| Succeeded by | Reginald McKenna |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill 30 November 1874 Woodstock, England, United Kingdom |
| Died | 24 January 1965 (aged 90) London, England, United Kingdom |
| Resting place | St Martin's Church, Bladon |
| Political party | Conservative (1900–04, 1924–64) Liberal (1904–24) |
| Spouse(s) | Clementine Churchill |
| Relations |
|
| Children | |
| Alma mater | |
| Profession |
|
| Religion | Anglican |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance | British Empire |
| Service/branch |  British Army |
| Years of service | 1895–1900, 1902–24 |
| Rank | Lieutenant-Colonel |
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, DL, FRS, RA (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British Prime Minister to have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made anhonorary citizen of the United States.
Out of office and politically "in the wilderness" during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament. On the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His steadfast refusal to consider defeat, surrender, or a compromise peace helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult early days of the War when Britain stood alone in its active opposition to Adolf Hitler. Churchill was particularly noted for his speeches and radio broadcasts, which helped inspire the British people. He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured.
| Franklin Delano Roosevelt | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Roosevelt in 1933 | |
| 32nd President of the United States | |
| In office March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945 | |
| Vice President | John Nance Garner IV (1933-1941) Henry Agard Wallace (1941-1945) Harry S. Truman (1945) |
| Preceded by | Herbert Hoover |
| Succeeded by | Harry S. Truman |
| 44th Governor of New York | |
| In office January 1, 1929 – December 31, 1932 | |
| Lieutenant | Herbert H. Lehman |
| Preceded by | Al Smith |
| Succeeded by | Herbert H. Lehman |
| Assistant Secretary of the Navy | |
| In office March 17, 1913 – August 26, 1920 | |
| President | Woodrow Wilson |
| Preceded by | Beekman Winthrop |
| Succeeded by | Gordon Woodbury |
| Member of the New York State Senate for the 26th District | |
| In office January 1, 1911 – March 17, 1913 | |
| Preceded by | John F. Schlosser |
| Succeeded by | James E. Towner |
| Personal details | |
| Born | January 30, 1882 Hyde Park, New York, U.S. |
| Died | April 12, 1945 (aged 63) Warm Springs, Georgia, U.S. |
| Resting place | Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site Hyde Park, New York |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse(s) | Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (m. 1905–1945; his death) |
| Relations |
|
| Children | |
| Parents | James Roosevelt I Sara Ann Delano |
| Alma mater | Harvard College Columbia Law School |
| Occupation | Corporate lawyer |
| Religion | Episcopal |
| Signature |  |
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (/ˈroʊzəvɛlt/ roh-zə-velt or /ˈroʊzəvəlt/ roh-zə-vəlt) (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), commonly known by his initials FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States (1933–1945). He served for 12 years and four terms, and was the only president ever to serve more than eight years. He was a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic depression and total war. A dominant leader of the Democratic Party, he built aNew Deal Coalition that realigned American politics after 1932, as his New Deal domestic policies defined American liberalism for the middle third of the 20th century.
The "Big Three" (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Joseph Stalin), together with GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek, cooperated informally on a plan in which American and British troops concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought on the Eastern front; and Chinese, British and American troops fought in Asia and the Pacific. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high profile conferences as well as contact through diplomatic and military channels. Roosevelt guaranteed that the U.S. would be the "Arsenal of Democracy" by shipping $50 billion of Lend Lease supplies, primarily to Britain and to the USSR, China and other Allies.
In October 1942, the President was advised that military resources were desperately needed at Guadalcanal to prevent overrunning by the Japanese. FDR heeded the advice, redirected armaments and the Japanese Pacific offensive was stalled.
Joseph Stalin
Иосиф Сталин (Russian)
იოსებ სტალინი (Georgian)
| |
|---|---|
 | |
| General secretary of the Central Committeeof the Communist Party of the Soviet Union | |
| In office 3 April 1922 – 16 October 1952 | |
| Preceded by | Vyacheslav Molotov (as Responsible Secretary) |
| Succeeded by | Nikita Khrushchev (office reestablished) |
| Chairman of the Council of Ministers | |
| In office 6 May 1941 – 5 March 1953 | |
| First Deputies | Nikolai Voznesensky Vyacheslav Molotov |
| Preceded by | Vyacheslav Molotov |
| Succeeded by | Georgy Malenkov |
| People's Commissar for Defense of the Soviet Union | |
| In office 19 July 1941 – 25 February 1946 | |
| Premier | Himself |
| Preceded by | Semyon Timoshenko |
| Succeeded by | Nikolai Bulganin after vacancy |
| Member of the Secretariat | |
| In office 3 April 1922 – 5 March 1953 | |
| Full member of the Presidium | |
| In office 25 March 1919 – 5 March 1953 | |
| Member of the Orgburo | |
| In office 16 January 1919 – 5 March 1953 | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | 18 December 1878 Gori, Tiflis Governorate,Russian Empire |
| Died | 5 March 1953 (aged 74) Kuntsevo Dacha, Kuntsevo,Russian SFSR, Soviet Union |
| Resting place | Lenin's Mausoleum, Moscow,Russian SFSR, Soviet Union (9 March 1953 – 31 October 1961) Kremlin Wall Necropolis, Moscow, Soviet Union (from 31 October 1961) |
| Nationality | Georgian |
| Political party | Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
| Spouse(s) | Ekaterina Svanidze (1906–1907) Nadezhda Alliluyeva (1919–1932) |
| Children | Yakov Dzhugashvili, Vasily Dzhugashvili, Svetlana Alliluyeva |
| Religion | None (atheist), formerlyGeorgian Orthodox |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Soviet Union |
| Service/branch | Soviet Armed Forces |
| Years of service | 1943–1953 |
| Rank | Marshal of the Soviet Union(1943–1945) Generalissimus of the Soviet Union (1945–1953) |
| Commands | All (supreme commander) |
| Battles/wars | World War II |
| Awards |                _BAR.svg){kind=small} _BAR.svg){kind=small} |
Joseph Stalin or Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Ио́сиф Виссарио́нович Ста́лин, pronounced [ˈjosʲɪf vʲɪsɐˈrʲonəvʲɪt͡ɕ ˈstalʲɪn]; born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jugashvili,Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი, pronounced [iɔsɛb bɛsariɔnis d͡ze d͡ʒuɣaʃvili]; (18 December 1878[1] – 5 March 1953), was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953.
Soviets stop the Germans
While the Germans pressed forward, Stalin was confident of an eventual Allied victory over Germany. In September 1941, Stalin told British diplomats that he wanted two agreements: (1) a mutual assistance/aid pact and (2) a recognition that, after the war, the Soviet Union would gain the territories in countries that it had taken pursuant to its division of Eastern Europe with Hitler in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The British agreed to assistance but refused to agree upon the territorial gains, which Stalin accepted months later as the military situation deteriorated somewhat in mid-1942.[170] By December 1941, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow. On 5 December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive, pushing German troops back 40–50 miles from Moscow, theWehrmacht's first significant defeat of the war.[171]
In 1942, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an immediate victory in the East, to the more long-term goal of securing the southern Soviet Union to conquer oil fields vital to a long-term German war effort.[172] In July 1942, Hitler praised the efficiency of the Soviet military industry and Stalin:
Stalin, too, must command our unconditional respect. In his own way he is a hell of a fellow! (German: ein genialer Kerl) He knows his models, Genghiz Khan and the others, very well, and the scope of his industrial planning is exceeded only by our own Four Year Plan.[173]
While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking campaign in efforts to take Moscow.[174] During the war, Time magazine named Stalin Time Person of the Year twice[175] and he was also one of the nominees for Time Person of the Century title.
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